Into a New Millennium  1970 - 2000

Exports 1970-1990s

From 1970-1979, the average annual value of agricultural exports totaled $19.8 billion/year or 19% of total exports.

From 1980-1989, the average annual value of agricultural exports totaled $35.6 billion/year or 15% of total exports.

From 1990-1999, the average annual value of agricultural exports totaled $48.5 billion/year or 10% of total exports.

Rise and Decline of Farms

This graph shows the rise and eventual decline in the number of farms in America.

Iowa Public Television also has a video about farms and farm production in the 1970s.

The 1970s See Good Times in Agriculture

History of American Agriculture, 1607-2000, U.S. Department of Agriculture [online].

New Pesticides and Herbicides

Farmers readily adopted new pesticides and herbicides that were developed in the 1970s, which allowed them to capitalize on increased foreign trade with the Soviet Union.

Agricultural Success

The success of U.S. agriculture cannot be attributed to fertile soil and ideal growing conditions alone. Financial resources from the government are also vital to the achievements of American agriculture. Research funding, financial aid during poor growth seasons, and education programs are just a few of many examples that have led American farming to agricultural success.

Fertile Soil

Fertile soil is one of the most valuable resources America possesses. Thus, soil conservation is a high priority for the USDA. Visit the Natural Resource Conservation Service website to learn more about this priceless natural resource.

Environmental Laws and Regulations

Since President Nixon established the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970, Congress has passed dozens of laws that the EPA enforces to protect the environment. Visit the EPA website to help you answer these questions.

EPA website

Get Big or Get Out

Earl Butz became the Secretary of Agriculture (1971-1976) as food prices climbed high enough to generate political heat. He abolished a USDA program that paid corn farmers to not plant all their land. This program had unsuccessfully attempted to prevent a national oversupply of corn and low corn prices. His mantra to farmers was "get big or get out", and he urged farmers to plant commodity crops such as wheat, corn, and soybeans "from fencerow to fencerow." Butz worked closely with agribusiness firms. Some considered this the begining of agricultural industirialization. His critics also noted that he was a director of three large agribusiness corporations. Some said his policies led to " the rise of major agribusiness corporations, and the declining financial stability of the small family farm." 

"In 1972, the Soviet Union, suffering disastrous harvests, purchased 30 million tons of American grain. Butz had helped to arrange that sale in the hope of giving a boost to crop prices to bring restive farmers tempted to vote for George McGovern into the Republican fold.

He was featured in the documentary King Corn, recognized as the person who started the rise of corn production, large commercial farms, and the abundance of corn in American diets. In King Corn, Butz argued that the corn subsidy had dramatically reduced the cost of food for all Americans by improving the efficiency of farming techniques. By artificially increasing demand for food, food production became more efficient and drove down the cost of food for everyone." 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Butz https://www.nytimes.com/1976/06/13/archives/why-they-love-earl-butz-prosperous-farmers-see-him-as-the-greatest.html

The Agricultural Act of 1970

The Agriculture Act of 1970 (HR 18546-PL 91-524) was signed into law by President Nixon on November 30th after 16 months of making its way through the legislative branch. This bill caused a major controversy among farm groups, Congress, and the administration. The administration wanted to end parity or equality guarantees for price supports and replace it with flexible supports based on the world market prices. On the other hand, farm groups wanted higher parity guarantees because they believed farm income would be lowered by the administration’s plan.

Another point of contention in the 1970 farm bill came when looking at subsidies for farmers. Members of Congress representing urban areas had worked to end subsidies since 1968 because they wanted to end the program that had paid individual farmers and farms $4 million in one year. After debate surrounding subsidies the farm bill included a $55,000 ceiling on subsidies.

1970 Agricultural Act Cleared After 16-Month Debate. (1971). In CQ Almanac 1970, 26th ed., 01-634-01-644. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly.

The Agriculture and Consumer Protections Act of 1973

The Agricultural and Consumer Protection Act of 1973 (H.R.8860) was passed by the 93rd Congress. This law limits payments for commodities to $20,000. This law also included provisions and guidance for many areas of agriculture including milk, butterfat, the dairy product pesticide indemnity program, dairy imports, the wheat set-aside program, set aside programs for crops of feed grain, set aside programs for cotton, maintains eligibility for food stamps, and additional provisions for food stamps.

For more information about the Agriculture and Consumer Protection Act of 1973 view the Summary of  the Act.

H.R. 8860-Agriculture and Consumer Protection Act. (n.d.). Congress.gov.

The Food and Agriculture Act of 1977

According to the Wikipedia summary posted on the govtrack website, the Food and Agriculture Act of 1977 was an omnibus bill or a bill that combines diverse topics and is accepted in a single vote by the legislature. This farm bill was signed into law on September 29, 1977. Included in this farm bill were income supports and the establishment of a farmer-owned reserve for grain and a two-tier program for peanuts. Actions were also taken to permanently amend the Food Stamp Act of 1964 under Title XIII (the Food Stamp Act of 1977), this provision eliminated the purchase requirement and simplified eligibility requirements. Title XIV of the Food and Agriculture Act of 1977 created an act that established the National Agriculture Research, Extension, and Teaching Policy Act, as well as, established the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) as the leading federal agency for agricultural research, extensions, and teaching programs.

S. 275 (95th): Food and Agriculture Act. (n.d.). govtrack.

High-Value Product Exports

In the years between 1975 and 2000, agricultural exports rose sharply.

Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture [online].

History of Soviet Union

"Founded in the 12th century, the Principality of Muscovy was able to emerge from over 200 years of Mongol domination (13th-15th centuries) and to gradually conquer and absorb surrounding principalities. In the early 17th century, a new Romanov Dynasty continued this policy of expansion across Siberia to the Pacific. Under Peter I (ruled 1682-1725), hegemony was extended to the Baltic Sea and the country was renamed the Russian Empire. During the 19th century, more territorial acquisitions were made in Europe and Asia. Repeated devastating defeats of the Russian army in World War I led to widespread rioting in the major cities of the Russian Empire and to the overthrow in 1917 of the imperial household. The Communists under Vladimir Lenin seized power soon after and formed the USSR. The brutal rule of Josef Stalin (1928-53) strengthened Russian dominance of the Soviet Union at a cost of tens of millions of lives. The Soviet economy and society stagnated in the following decades until General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev (1985-91) introduced glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to modernize Communism, but his initiatives inadvertently released forces that by December 1991 splintered the USSR into 15 independent republics. Since then, Russia has struggled in its efforts to build a democratic political system and market economy to replace the strict social, political, and economic controls of the Communist period."

The World Factbook, 2004, Central Intelligence Agency [online].

OPEC

The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) mission "is to coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its Member Countries and ensure the stabilization of oil markets in order to secure an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consumers, a steady income to producers and a fair return on capital for those investing in the petroleum industry." Visit the OPEC website to learn about these countries and find out where they are located.

OPEC website

High Oil Prices

High oil prices in the 1970s led to significant strides in harnessing natural resources for energy. Visit the Energy Information Administration's website to see a chronological history of oil prices since 1968, and then answer the following questions.

Short Term Energy Outlook

Plant Geneticists

Plant geneticists explore a plant's genes looking for those that control valuable traits, like tolerance to cold or the size or sweetness of its fruit. They also work to improve breeding methods and to ensure that future generations of a particular plant will have the traits farmers and consumers want.

Renewable Energy Systems

"Renewable energy systems use resources that are constantly replaced and are usually less polluting. Examples of renewable energy systems include solar, wind, and geothermal energy (getting energy from the heat in the earth). We also get renewable energy from trees and plants, rivers, and even garbage.

"Renewable energy uses energy sources that are continually replenished by nature--the sun, the wind, water, the Earth's heat, and plants. Renewable energy technologies turn these fuels into usable forms of energy--most often electricity, but also heat, chemicals, or mechanical power. . . .

"Today we primarily use fossil fuels to heat and power our homes and fuel our cars. It's convenient to use coal, oil, and natural gas for meeting our energy needs, but we have a limited supply of these fuels on the Earth. We're using them much more rapidly than they are being created. Eventually, they will run out. And because of safety concerns and waste disposal problems, the United States will retire much of its nuclear capacity by 2020. In the meantime, the nation's energy needs are expected to grow by 33 percent during the next 20 years. Renewable energy can help fill the gap.

"Even if we had an unlimited supply of fossil fuels, using renewable energy is better for the environment. We often call renewable energy technologies 'clean' or 'green' because they produce few if any pollutants. Burning fossil fuels, however, sends greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, trapping the sun's heat and contributing to global warming. Climate scientists generally agree that the Earth's average temperature has risen in the past century. If this trend continues, sea levels will rise, and scientists predict that floods, heat waves, droughts, and other extreme weather conditions could occur more often.

"Other pollutants are released into the air, soil, and water when fossil fuels are burned. These pollutants take a dramatic toll on the environment--and on humans. Air pollution contributes to diseases like asthma. Acid rain from sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides harms plants and fish. Nitrogen oxides also contribute to smog.

"Renewable energy will also help us develop energy independence and security. The United States imports more than 50 percent of its oil, up from 34 percent in 1973. Replacing some of our petroleum with fuels made from plant matter, for example, could save money and strengthen our energy security."

"Learning about Renewable Energy--For Young Scholars" and "Renewable Energy: An Overview," Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy [online].

Hydrologists

"If you like discovering how soil and water create our environment, you may be interested in becoming a hydrologist or watershed specialist. Working with a variety of people, problem-solving, and application of some basic chemical concepts make this an interesting occupation. BLM [Bureau of Land Management] hydrologists/watershed specialists work at improving or maintaining water quality by recommending actions to minimize the effects of grazing, mining, logging, and other types of land uses. This involves developing an understanding of these land uses, developing long-term plans, and doing studies to ensure that the plans are successful. These specialists work with range conservationists, outdoor recreation planners, soil scientists, and others to help prepare plans for managing all the resources in a basin or watershed. These specialists must understand plants and soil, rocks and land features, water and weather. Sometimes they are called upon to recommend what kinds of grasses, shrubs, or trees to plant. They may design ponds or structures in streams to slow water and reduce erosion, or develop methods to study human uses of public land to determine if these uses are causing erosion and reducing plant cover for fish. High school courses that will help you prepare for a career as a hydrologist or watershed specialist include math, biology, physics, chemistry, computer science, speech, and English/writing courses. A bachelor's degree in a physical or natural science or engineering is required. Studies should include courses in hydrology, physical sciences, geophysics, chemistry, engineering science, soils, math, aquatic biology, geology, meteorology, oceanography, or the management or conservation of water resources."

"Hydrologist," BLM Career Cards, Bureau of Land Management [online].

Feeding the World

The low value of the American dollar in the 1970s increased opportunities for agricultural exports. America's farmers could boast that they fed the world as the economy depended more and more on trade overseas.

Panama Canal Neutrality

On September 7, 1977 President Jimmy Carter signed the Panama Canal Treaty that would turn control of the canal over to Panama in 1999 and guarantee the canal's neutrality. Take a time-lapse journey through the canal and answer the following.

The History of the USDA

Explore the history of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) by viewing this video.

O'Leary, P.J. (Producer). (n.d.). Secretaries of Agriculture30 Leaders; 150 years. U.S. Department of Agriculture. [Streaming video].

Tractor Innovations

Tractors have significantly impacted farm labor and productivity. A review of the History of the Tractor timeline marks the changes in machinery size, horsepower, and specialization. 

View these commercial videos and observe the differences. 

For more tractor commercials view this YouTube playlist.

Tractor Technology Timeline

Use this interactive tractor timeline to learn about the history of tractors. Dive into the history of tractor development and see how the evolution of these farm implements has changed how we farm and made it possible to increase our crop yields.

Read "The Fascinating History of the First Tractor Ever Invented" to learn more about the first tractor invented and how John Deere became a tractor company.

This video provides a brief overview of the development of farm equipment and tractors.

In 1917, Henry Ford and his son Edsel designed and launched the Model F tractor. Hailed as the “Model T of the Soil,” the Fordson Model F was the first lightweight, affordable tractor made using an assembly line. This video made on the 100th Anniversary of the Fordson Tractor (2017), tells this American story.

Foot and Mouth Disease

"Foot-and-mouth disease outbreaks have occurred several times in the United States, the last time being in 1929. Each outbreak brought somber scenes of eradication based upon the costly strategy of shooting and burying all infected and exposed animals. Subsequently, the United States cooperated with Mexico in eradicating two major outbreaks there.

"But North America's livestock industry can never relax its vigilance. The FMD virus lurks in many herds around the world, making accidental introduction a constant threat. The expectation of someday conquering FMD was raised in 1975 by news from the Plum Island Animal Disease Center--an isolated, maximum security research facility off the coast of Long Island, N.Y. ARS researchers there had discovered that injection of a protein derived from a portion of the coating of FMD virus and called VP3, confers immunity to the disease. However, methods then available for mass-producing a VP3 vaccine were not economically feasible.

"In 1980 the Plum Island scientists turned to another route to develop a safe and inexpensive vaccine[:] recombinant DNA technology. The USDA team was led by biochemist Howard L. Bachrach and collaborated with scientists from Genentech, a private research company. The researchers inserted a bioengineered plasmid containing the gene for VP3 into Escherichia coli bacteria. As these bacteria grew, they obeyed orders from the guest DNA and mass-produced the desired VP3 proteins. In 1981 the scientists reached their goal: a VP3 vaccine was produced that did not make either infectious virus or infectious RNA.

"The Plum Island research achievement now enables the U.S. to produce and hold a ready supply of FMD vaccine for emergency use. Equally important, the vaccine can be stored indefinitely without refrigeration, a boon to countries that rely on vaccination to control FMD."

ARS Timeline: 138 Years of Ag Research, U.S. Department of Agriculture [online].

Citrus Development Program

During the 1970s, USDA plant scientists introduced numerous improved fruit, vegetable, cotton, and wheat varieties that enhanced the American farmer's place in the global marketplace. Visit this USDA website to learn more about the USDA's citrus development program, and then answer the following questions.

USDA website - More and Better Citrus

Droughts in the 80s

In the 1980s, several areas of the United States suffered from serious droughts. Just as in previous years, droughts today still impact agriculture. A drought is a natural occurrence in nature that happens in an area when precipitation (snow or rainfall) is less than normal for a period of time. Other factors that may make droughts more severe include periods of hot and/or windy weather. Droughts often have a serious impact on agriculture and the people that depend on it. Visit the National Weather Service website to learn which areas in the United States are currently experiencing drought conditions.

National Weather Service website

U.S. Agriculture Exports 1970 - 2002

Examine this chart showing the value of U.S. agricultural exports from 1970 to 2002.

U.S. Census Bureau [online].

Grain Embargo to the Soviet Union - 1979

In December 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. President Carter wanted the Soviet Union to know that they couldn't invade their neighbor without a strong response from the United States. As a result, the United States imposed a grain embargo, refusing to sell the Soviet Union 17 million tons of livestock grain that they had ordered. The embargo on grain was intended to impact the country's source of meat and thus force the Soviet government to reconsider the invasion. However, the Soviet Union was able to get enough grain from other countries, and didn't withdraw from Afghanistan until nearly ten years later. The embargo caused harm to an already struggling U.S. farm economy by removing an export market for American farmers. The grain embargo caused a surplus of grain, resulting in lower prices. In April 1981, soon after taking office, President Ronald Reagan lifted the embargo.

Robert L. Paarlberg, "Lessons of the Grain Embargo," Foreign Affairs, 1980 [online]; and Clifton B. Luttrell, "The Russian Grain Embargo: Dubious Success," Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis [online].

High Debt For Farmers

During the 1970s, farmers took advantage of good economic times to expand. They bought more land, more expensive and better machines, and more farming supplies and services. Many farmers paid for the cost of expansion with low-interest loans. Unfortunately, the economy began to change in the late 1970s. Interest rates went up, people became more conservative in their spending habits, which forced prices on farm goods down, and farm debts began to grow. Some farmers hoped to ride out the bad times by getting more loans, but the hard times persisted, and farmers made even less money. Many farmers lost their farms, or had to get second jobs when their farm was not providing enough income to support their families.

The Agriculture and Food Act of 1981

The Agriculture and Food Act of 1981 (S.884) was constructed by the 97thCongress of the United States (1981-1982). The 1981 farm bill contained 18 sections or titles including:

Title I: Dairy

Title II: Wool and Mohair

Title III: Wheat

Title IV: Feed Grains

Title V: Cotton

Title VI: Rice

Title VII: Peanuts

Title VIII: Soybeans

Title IX: Sugar

Title X: Grain Reserves and National Agricultural Cost of Production Standards Review Board

Title XI: Miscellaneous

Title XII: Agricultural Exports and Public Law 480

Title XIII: Food Stamp and Commodity Distribution Amendments of 1981

Title XIV: National Agricultural Research, Extension, and Teaching Policy Act Amendments of 1981

Title XVI: Credit, Rural Development, and Family Farms

Title XVII: Floral Research and Consumer Information

Title XVIII: Effective Date

S.884-Agriculture and Food Act of 1981. (n.d.). Congress.gov.

The Economy of the 1980s

Read about the economy in the United States during the 1980s from An Outline of the U.S. Economy.

"The nation endured a deep recession throughout 1982. Business bankruptcies rose 50 percent over the previous year. Farmers were especially hard hit, as agricultural exports declined, crop prices fell, and interest rates rose. But while the medicine of a sharp slowdown was hard to swallow, it did break the destructive cycle in which the economy had been caught. By 1983, inflation had eased, the economy had rebounded, and the United States began a sustained period of economic growth. The annual inflation rate remained under 5 percent throughout most of the 1980s and into the 1990s.

"The economic upheaval of the 1970s had important political consequences. The American people expressed their discontent with federal policies by turning out Carter in 1980 and electing former Hollywood actor and California governor Ronald Reagan as president. Reagan (1981-1989) based his economic program on the theory of supply-side economics, which advocated reducing tax rates so people could keep more of what they earned. The theory was that lower tax rates would induce people to work harder and longer, and that this in turn would lead to more saving and investment, resulting in more production and stimulating overall economic growth. While the Reagan-inspired tax cuts served mainly to benefit wealthier Americans, the economic theory behind the cuts argued that benefits would extend to lower-income people as well because higher investment would lead [to] new job opportunities and higher wages.

"The central theme of Reagan's national agenda, however, was his belief that the federal government had become too big and intrusive. In the early 1980s, while he was cutting taxes, Reagan was also slashing social programs. Reagan also undertook a campaign throughout his tenure to reduce or eliminate government regulations affecting the consumer, the workplace, and the environment. At the same time, however, he feared that the United States had neglected its military in the wake of the Vietnam War, so he successfully pushed for big increases in defense spending.

"The combination of tax cuts and higher military spending overwhelmed more modest reductions in spending on domestic programs. As a result, the federal budget deficit swelled even beyond the levels it had reached during the recession of the early 1980s. From $74,000 million in 1980, the federal budget deficit rose to $221,000 million in 1986. It fell back to $150,000 million in 1987, but then started growing again. Some economists worried that heavy spending and borrowing by the federal government would re-ignite inflation, but the Federal Reserve remained vigilant about controlling price increases, moving quickly to raise interest rates any time it seemed a threat. Under Chairman Paul Volcker and his successor, Alan Greenspan, the Federal Reserve retained the central role of economic traffic cop, eclipsing Congress and the president in guiding the nation's economy.

"The recovery that first built up steam in the early 1980s was not without its problems. Farmers, especially those operating small family farms, continued to face challenges in making a living, especially in 1986 and 1988, when the nation's mid-section was hit by serious droughts, and several years later when it suffered extensive flooding. Some banks faltered from a combination of tight money and unwise lending practices, particularly those known as savings and loan associations, which went on a spree of unwise lending after they were partially deregulat ed. The federal government had to close many of these institutions and pay off their depositors, at enormous cost to taxpayers."

"The U.S. Economy: A Brief History," An Outline of the U.S. Economy, U.S. Information Agency [online].

FARM AID Organization

On September 22, 1985 in Champaign, Illinois, musicians Willie Nelson, Neil Young, and John Mellencamp organized the first FARM AID concert. The concert helped raise money for farmers who were threatened with losing their family farms. Some of the other singers and musicians who performed at the concert were Bob Dylan, Billy Joel, B. B. King, Loretta Lynn, Roy Orbison, and Tom Petty. Visit the website of the FARM AID organization to learn more about their history and mission.

FARM AID website

Changing Farm Credit Policies

Read about how the Congress directed the Farmers Home Administration to modify its credit policies for farmers during the 1980s.

"Congress established the Farmers Home Administration (FmHA) in response to the economic impact of the Great Depression of the 1930s. Both the Farm Credit System (FCS) and FmHA have played major roles in supplementing agricultural credit provided by private lenders such as commercial banks and life insurance companies by providing credit to enable producers to purchase farmland as well as to finance annual production expenses. The two lenders play different roles. The Farm Credit System provides credit to creditworthy borrowers. Farmers Home Administration makes financial assistance available primarily to family farmers unable to secure credit from private lenders."

Furthermore:

"When the farm economy deteriorated in the early and mid-1980's, it became apparent that a significant portion of FmHA's loan portfolio would not be repaid by delinquent borrowers and that increased Congressional appropriations in the future would be needed to address shortfalls.

"In 1987, Congress addressed the deteriorating financial position of farm lending organizations across the country in two acts: the Agricultural Credit Act of 1987 (ACA), a supplemental appropriations act. Congress directed FmHA to reinstate the 'continuation policy' which allows borrowers to obtain additional credit without having to show an ability to repay prior loans. FmHA's loan servicing process traditionally included rescheduling, reamortization, and deferrals. The ACA liberalized this, authorizing FmHA to write-down delinquent loans to allow borrowers to continue operating their farms whenever possible. The Food, Agriculture, Conservation and Trade Act of 1990 (FACTA) limited post-November 28, 1990 debt write-down to a lifetime amount of $300,000. In addition, a loan cannot be written down to the point that the net present value of the reduced loan is less than the net recovery value of the loan (prior to restructuring) if liquidated through foreclosure. When no way can be found to restructure a loan through loan servicing and property is foreclosed on by FmHA or voluntarily conveyed to it, the former owner has the first opportunity to lease or repurchase the property, more often than not with Federal financing."

"Crisis and Activism: 1929-1940," U.S. Senate Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry, 1825-1998 [online]; and "Agricultural Programs," The Impact of Federal Programs on Wetlands: A Report to Congress by the Secretary of the Interior, 1994 [onli

Food and Security Act of 1985

The Food and Security Act of 1985 was created and passed into law by the 99th Congress (1985-1986). This farm bill was introduced by Representative E. de la Garza (D-TX-15) in the House Committee Agriculture, Merchant Marine and Fisheries. The bill was signed into law on December 23, 1985. The 1985 farm bill has 18 titles including:

Title I: Dairy

Title II: Wool and Mohair

Title III: Wheat

Title IV: Feed Grains

Title V: Cotton

Title VI: Rice

Title VII: Peanuts

Title VIII: Soybeans

Title IX: Sugar

Title X: General Commodity Provisions

Title XI: Trade

Title XII: Conservation

Title XIII: Credit

Title XIV: Agricultural Research, Extension, and Teaching

Title XV: Food Stamp and Related Provisions

Title XVI: Marketing

Title XVII: Related and Miscellaneous Matters

Title XVIII: General Effective Date

H.R.2100-Food Security Act of 1985. (n.d.). Congress.gov.

Conservation Reserve Program

"Originally authorized under the 1985 Farm Bill, [the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP)] is a voluntary program sponsored by USDA that provides incentives to landowners to remove environmentally sensitive land from agricultural production and instead establish protective vegetative cover of grass, trees, or wildlife habitat. Since its inception in 1986, this program has helped reduce soil erosion by more than 40 percent and restored 1.8 million acres of critical wetlands. Since President Bush signed the historic 2002 Farm Bill, CRP has increased enrollment by 2.6 million acres, conserving a total of 34.8 million acres of environmentally sensitive land for wildlife habitat, riparian buffers, and soil protection. The 2002 Farm Bill provides more than $40 billion over a decade to restore millions of acres of wetlands, protect habitats, conserve water, and improve streams and rivers near working farms and ranches."

"Conservation Initiatives Fact Sheet," White House [online].

Agricultural Research Service

Natural resources and sustainable agricultural systems are a major program area for the USDA's Agricultural Research Service. Many career scientists around the country work on projects in this program area.

World Trade Organizations

The World Trade Organization (WTO) develops the rules for trade between nations. Visit the WTO In Brief web page to learn about the WTO. Explore some of the links on this page to examine the organization's history and its mission.

World Trade Organization

Karl Kupers' Farming

"Karl Kupers, an eastern Washington grain grower, was a typical dryland wheat farmer who idled his land in fallow to conserve moisture. After years of watching his soil blow away and his market price slip, he made drastic changes to his 5,600-acre operation. In place of fallow, he planted more profitable hard red and hard white wheats along with seed crops like condiment mustard, sunflower, grass and safflower. All of those were drilled using a no-till system Kupers calls direct-seeding.

"'I look at this more diverse system as a tremendous opportunity to decrease chemical use and make more net profit per acre,' said Kupers, who received a grant from USDA's Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE) program to offset the risk. Now, he puts his exuberant personality to work as an aggressive marketer of alternative crops--clearing more profits each year while achieving his goal to save soil.

"'Economically, I think we're just about at that point where we can show that we can be sustainable for the short term and the future,' he said. 'We put no dust in the atmosphere, there's no particulate matter, if water does run off our soils, it is clean water.'

"Although growing alternative crops to diversify a traditional farm rotation increase[s] profits while lessening adverse environmental impacts, the majority of U.S. cropland is still planted in just three crops: soybeans, corn and wheat. That lack of crop diversity can cause problems for farmers, from low profits to soil erosion. Adding new crops that fit climate, geography and management preferences can improve not only your bottom line, but also your whole farming outlook.

"'Continued low commodity prices have gradually driven more and more people to look for other options,' said Rob Myers, executive director of the Thomas Jefferson Agricultural Institute in Columbia, Mo. For some farmers, planting alternative crops has made an 'immediate and significant' improvement in income, he said.

"Kupers is not the only farmer who diversified his monoculture cropping system to enjoy renewed profits. Members of the Northwest Kansas Farm Management Association, for example, enjoyed average net farm incomes of $50,485 in 1998--three times that of other Kansas growers--after diversifying their operations."

"Diversifying Cropping Systems," Opportunities in Agriculture Bulletin, Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education, U.S. Department of Agriculture [online].

Catfish Farming

"Catfish farming makes up a large percentage of the U.S. aquaculture industry and typifies aquaculture in action. The life of a farm-raised catfish begins with the mating of genetically bred broodstock. Broodstock are sexually mature fish used solely for reproduction. They are so important that some farmers specialize in their production.

"Typically, once the eggs are laid and fertilized, they are placed in controlled hatching tanks with oxygenated water of suitable temperature and quality. The eggs hatch in seven to eight days, and 18 days after hatching the young catfish--'fry,' as they are called--are strong enough to be transferred to outdoor ponds to mature.

"The pond size may vary from 5 to 20 acres, is 4 to 5 feet deep, and is usually fed by a good supply of well water. Catfish fry, which are less than 1 inch long at this point, are stocked at densities ranging from 70,000 per acre to upwards of 200,000 per acre, as recommended by hatchery biologists.

"Once fish enter the pond, their growth and survival will wholly depend upon the quality of that environment. Everything the fish comes into contact with has the potential of becoming a part of the edible flesh of that organism and can affect its life. If the water or food contains contaminants, they may end up in the fish. If improper drugs are used to treat a disease, residues of those drugs may also become a part of the fish. If too many aquatic plants are present, they will compete with the fish for oxygen. Sound management is essential to keep the fish growing.

"So, from the time of stocking to the time of harvest, the farmer is busy controlling the aquaculture system.

"First, every attention is given to the quality of the commercially prepared dry pellet diet. It must be high in protein, made of soybeans, corn, wheat, and fishmeal, and contain a balance of essential vitamins and minerals.

"A balanced diet of floating pellets is mechanically scattered on the fish pond's surface once or twice daily. Fish gourmets credit the pellet for the catfish's distinctive flavor, which they say they would recognize blindfolded. Others say the taste comes from the sweet well water in which the catfish grow. This, too, is managed by the farmer.

"Even before the fish go into the pond, water quality and location are concerns. The farmers make sure the pond's soil is free of pesticides and not contaminated. Then they secure an abundant source of clean water. Most catfish farmers use well water because of its desirable chemical makeup and lack of contaminants.

"The water quality must be constantly checked for optimum growth requirements: proper temperature, the right amount of oxygen, the appropriate water chemistry, and just the right balance of aquatic plants and weeds.

"Under the best conditions, 18 to 24 months after hatching, the catfish reach a market weight size of one and one-quarter to one and one-half pounds. They are transferred from the pond to water-laden, oxygen-treated tank trucks for live shipment to the processing plant."

Beverly Corey, "Life on a Fish Farm: Food Safety a Priority," U.S. Food and Drug Administration [online].

John Vollmer's Organic Strawberries

"When John Vollmer, a third-generation tobacco farmer in Bunn, N.C., decided to stop growing tobacco and start raising strawberries organically, it was an unexpected move for someone who describes himself as a chemical-oriented farmer. Yet, Vollmer, whose main priority was finding a way to keep the family farm in the family, recognized that organic production might be a route to greater profits.

"'It was not an easy transition for me to think in other ways,' said Vollmer, a former agricultural chemical salesman. Yet, as he read books on organic soil management, he soon found himself fascinated by organic farming concepts. Over the next two years, he built soil organic matter with composts and cover crops and carefully researched organic techniques. Then he began his transition.

"Since then, his two acres of organic strawberries have been so successful that Vollmer brought another 25 acres into mixed fruit and vegetable production using the same soil and pest management techniques. While he has not certified that new acreage because he still wants to apply agri-chemical sprays if needed, he now considers himself more organic than conventional in the new field. In fact, asked whether he has any doubts about organic farming, Vollmer replied that he has only one: whether he should be transitioning those 25 acres now--or later.

"Vollmer typifies the enormous changes that have occurred in organic farming over the last 20 years. Two decades ago, it would have been impossible to predict the huge expansion of the organic industry."

"Transitioning to Organic Production," Opportunities in Agriculture Bulletin, Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education, U.S. Department of Agriculture [online].

Exploring Sustainability in Agriculture

Read the booklet Exploring Sustainability in Agriculture at the Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Service website, and then answer the following questions.

SARE website

Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education

As an alternative to competing with large farms, many small farm owners are now marketing specialty products directly to consumers through Community Supported Agriculture (CSA). Visit the Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education website to learn about CSA farms. Find a CSA farm near you.

SARE website

Using Computers to Farm

Successful farming requires "smart" work. Read this article about farmers and their use of computers at the Journal of Extension and answer the following questions.

What Influences Farmers' Computer Use?

GPS

These northern Louisiana farmers are using global positioning technology to make precise applications of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides where they are needed on small areas of the field.

GPS History

"The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based radio-navigation system consisting of a constellation of satellites and a network of ground stations used for monitoring and control. A minimum of 24 GPS satellites orbit the Earth at an altitude of approximately 11,000 miles providing users with accurate information on position, velocity, and time anywhere in the world and in all weather conditions.

"GPS is operated and maintained by the Department of Defense (DoD). The Interagency GPS Executive Board (IGEB) manages GPS, while the U.S. Coast Guard acts as the civil interface to the public for GPS matters. The Federal Aviation Administration is investigating and applying the use of GPS as it pertains to aviation.

History and Development

"GPS, formally known as the Navstar Global Positioning System, was initiated in 1973 to reduce the proliferation of navigation aids. By creating a system that overcame the limitations of many existing navigation systems, GPS became attractive to a broad spectrum of users worldwide. GPS has been successful in virtually all navigation applications, and because its capabilities are accessible using small, inexpensive equipment, GPS is being utilized in a wide variety of applications across the globe."

"GPS Basics," Satellite Navigation Product Teams, Federal Aviation Administration [online].

Plants Database

The Plants Database is part of the USDA's Natural Resource Conservation Service. According to the USDA, the database contains "standardized information about the vascular plants, mosses, liverworts, hornworts, and lichens of the U.S. and its territories." Visit the database website and type in the common name of a plant in your part of the country.

USDA Plants website

Extension Services

"All universities engage in research and teaching, but the nation's more than 100 land-grant colleges and universities have a third critical mission--extension. 'Extension' means 'reaching out,' and--along with teaching and research--land-grant institutions 'extend' their resources, solving public needs with college or university resources through non-formal, non-credit programs.

"Congress created the extension system nearly a century ago to address exclusively rural, agricultural issues. At that time, more than 50 percent of the U.S. population lived in rural areas, and 30 percent of the workforce was engaged in farming. Extension's engagement with rural America helped make possible the American agricultural revolution, which dramatically increased farm productivity:

--In 1945, it took up to 14 labor-hours to produce 100 bushels of corn on 2 acres of land.
--By 1987, it took just under 3 labor-hours to produce that same 100 bushels of corn on just over 1 acre.
--In 2002, that same 100 bushels of corn were produced on less than 1 acre.

"That increase in productivity has allowed fewer farmers to produce more food.

"Fewer than 2 percent of Americans farm for a living today, and only 10 percent of Americans now live in rural areas. Yet, the extension service still plays an important role in American life--rural, urban, and suburban. With its unprecedented reach--with an office in or near most of the nation's approximately 3,000 counties--extension agents help farmers grow crops, homeowners plan and maintain their homes, and children learn skills to become tomorrow's leaders."

"Extension: Introduction," Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture [online].

Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990

According to the summary found on govtrack:

“The Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade (FACT) Act of 1990—P.L. 101-624 (November 28, 1990) was a 5-year omnibus farm bill that passed Congress and was signed into law. This bill, also known as the 1990 farm bill, continued to move agriculture in a market-oriented direction by freezing target prices and allowing more planting flexibility.”

S. 2830 (101st): Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990. (2018). govtrack.

Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996

The Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996 was signed into law on April 4, 1996 by President Clinton (Public Law 104-127;7). Unlike other farm bills that covered two to five years, this farm bill created a seven-year plan for the Secretary of Agriculture to oversee agriculture and food programs from 1996-2002. Commodity programs were one thing that was impacted by the 1996 farm bill including direct payment programs for crops, elimination of most supply controls, elimination of milk price supports through direct government purchases of dairy products, and the consolidation of milk marketing orders used to administer a nationwide system of classified pricing for milk. 

According to Nelson and Schertz (n.d.), “Other provisions of the 1996 Act extend, modify, and establish various priorities, procedures, and options for administering programs related to commodities, nutrition, rural development, conservation, farm credit, agricultural trade, research, and generic commodity promotion.”

Nelson, F. J. & Schertz, L. P. (n.d.). Provisions of the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996.

NAFTA

"The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which took effect on January 1, 1994, called for the phasing out of virtually all restrictions on trade and investment flows among the United States, Canada, and Mexico over 10 years (with a few of the most sensitive restrictions eliminated over 15 years). The United States and Canada were already well into the elimination of the barriers between themselves in accordance with the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement, so the main new feature of NAFTA was the removal of the barriers between Mexico and those two countries."

North American Free Trade Agreement

The Effects of NAFTA on U.S. Mexican Trade and GDP, Congressional Business Office [online].

Exports to NAFTA Partners

Some Positive Stories from NAFTA

"U.S. pork producers credit NAFTA with their gains in market share in Mexico for pork products[,] which increased 130 percent between 1994 and 2000.

"The volume of U.S. beef and veal exports to Canada increased 26 percent between 1990 and 2000 and increased over fivefold to Mexico during 1993 to 2000.

"Sales of U.S. corn to Canada increased more than 127 percent in volume between 1990 and 2000 and increased nearly eighteen fold to Mexico during 1993 to 2000. Mexico chose to expedite its market openings for corn under NAFTA in order to provide lower cost food to its increasingly urban population and to ensure it had sufficient animal feed. The volume of U.S. soybean exports to Canada increased 15 percent between 1990 and 2000 and doubled for Mexico during 1993 to 2000.

"Exports of U.S. horticultural products to Canada have increased almost 30 percent since 1994, reaching $3.3 billion in 2000."

"Benefits of NAFTA," FAS Backgrounder, Foreign Agricultural Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture [online].

Why Clone?

Based on the Genetic Science Learning Center from the University of Utah, there are many reasons for cloning in animals and medicine. 

Dolly the Sheep, the most well-known animal cloned from an adult cell, lived for only six years, half that of the life span of a normal sheep. Of thirteen cloned sheep, none, including those that have been from the same cell line as Dolly, experienced any long-term health effects from cloning.

Consider the information presented on the website below and answer the related questions.

Why Clone?

Human Genome Project

Since 1947, the Department of Energy (DOE) and its predecessor agencies have been charged by Congress with developing new energy resources and technologies and pursuing a deeper understanding of the potential health and environmental risks posed by their production and use. Such studies, for example, have provided the scientific basis for individual risk assessments of nuclear medicine technologies. Visit the Human Genome Project website sponsored by the DOE and answer the following questions.

Human Genome Project website

Food Safety

In his January 25, 1997 radio address, President Bill Clinton said the following:

"We have built a solid foundation for the health of America's families. But clearly we must do more. No parent should have to think twice about the juice they pour their children at breakfast, or a hamburger ordered during dinner out."

"Food Safety Initiative Fact Sheet," FoodSafety.gov [online].

Bill Clinton

Bill Clinton was the first Democratic President since Franklin D. Roosevelt to win a second term. Visit the White House website to read a brief biography of this very popular President and answer the following questions.

President Bill Clinton history

Organic Food

"The U.S. Department of Agriculture has put in place a set of national standards that food labeled 'organic' must meet, whether it is grown in the United States or imported from other countries. After October 21, 2002, when you buy food labeled 'organic,' you can be sure that it was produced using the highest organic production and handling standards in the world.

"What is organic food?
Organic food is produced by farmers who emphasize the use of renewable resources and the conservation of soil and water to enhance environmental quality for future generations. Organic meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy products come from animals that are given no antibiotics or growth hormones. Organic food is produced without using most conventional pesticides fertilizers made with synthetic ingredients or sewage sludge bioengineering or ionizing radiation. Before a product can be labeled 'organic,' a Government-approved certifier inspects the farm where the food is grown to make sure the farmer is following all the rules necessary to meet USDA organic standards. Companies that handle or process organic food before it gets to your local supermarket or restaurant must be certified, too.

"Is organic food better for me and my family?
USDA makes no claims that organically produced food is safer or more nutritious than conventionally produced food. Organic food differs from conventionally produced food in the way it is grown, handled, and processed.

"When I go to the supermarket, how can I tell organically produced food from conventionally produced food?
You must look at package labels and watch for signs in the supermarket. Along with the national organic standards, USDA developed strict labeling rules to help consumers know the exact organic content of the food they buy. The USDA Organic seal also tells you that a product is at least 95 percent organic.

"Single-ingredient foods
Look for the word 'organic' and a small sticker version of the USDA Organic seal on vegetables or pieces of fruit. Or they may appear on the sign above the organic produce display.

"The word 'organic' and the seal may also appear on packages of meat, cartons of milk or eggs, cheese, and other single-ingredient foods.

"Foods with more than one ingredient
"The above photo shows examples of the labels that may be used on a wide variety of products that use organic ingredients.

"The sample cereal boxes show the four labeling categories. From left: cereal with 100 percent organic ingredients[,] cereal with 95-100 percent organic ingredients[,] cereal made with at least 70 percent organic ingredients[,] and cereal with less than 70 percent organic ingredients. Products with less than 70 percent organic ingredients may list specific organically produced ingredients on the side panel of the package, but may not make any organic claims on the front of the package. Look for the name and address of the Government-approved certifier on all packaged products that contain at least 70 percent organic ingredients.

"Will I find the USDA Organic seal on all 100 percent organic products, or products with at least 95 percent organic ingredients?
No. The use of the seal is voluntary.

"How is use of the USDA Organic seal protected?
People who sell or label a product 'organic' when they know it does not meet USDA standards can be fined up to $10,000 for each violation.

"Does natural mean organic?
No. Natural and organic are not interchangeable. Other truthful claims, such as free-range, hormone-free, and natural, can still appear on food labels. However, don't confuse these terms with 'organic.' Only food labeled 'organic' has been certified as meeting USDA organic standards."

"Organic Food Standards and Labels: The Facts," Agricultural Marketing Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture [online].

Vertical Integration

Vertical integration exists when a company owns all the different aspects of making, selling, and delivering a product or service. In the oil industry, for example, this refers to major oil companies that have ownership or control of the drilling, pumping, refining, and distribution of petroleum products.